Political Science class 12
BOOK 1
Ch-1
The Cold War
Era
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. Cuban Missile Crisis made whole world nervous by creating clashes between the two superpowers, the US and Soviet Union namely Cold War.
2. Cold War referred to competitions, tensions and series of confrontations between the US and USSR.
3. In 1945, with the end of Second World War, Cold War began when the US dropped bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in diplomatic manner to warn Soviet Union.
4. Both the powers became reluctant to initiate war to protect world from large scale destruction as they were a.vare that it will not lead only political aim to them.
5. The greed of expansion of their spheres of influence divided the world into alliances. The
US built NATO, South East Asian Treaty Organisation (SEATO) and Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO).
6. The Soviet UnrIri created Eastern alliance known as WARSAW PACT.
7. Smaller states „Maine either the alliance to get the promise of protection, weapons and economic aid against their local rivals.
8. Superpower required them to gain on access to vital resources, territory to launch weapons and troops, to spy on each other and economic support.
9. Despite of occurring crisis in Korea, Vietnam and Afghanistan, both the superpowers behaved rationally and responsibly.
10. Both the superpowers maintained ‘arms control’ by signing various treaties as Limited Test Ban Treaty, Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty and Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.
11. Countries outside the two blocs known as NAM (Non-Aligned Movement), joined by decolonised countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, played a crucial role in reducing cold war conflicts to maintain peace and stability all over the world.
12. Five founder members of NAM were Yugoslavia’s Josip Broz Tito, India’s JL Nehru, Egypt’s leader Gamal Abdel Nasser, Indonesia’s Sukarno and Ghana’s Kwame Nkrumah.
13. The majority of NAM members was categorised as Least Developed Countries (LDCs) which initiated economic development under the head of New International Economic Order (NIEO).
14. The United Nations Conference of Trade and Development (UNCTAD) brought out a report in 1972 to propose to give the LDCs control over their natural resources, to make western market available to them to reduce cost of technology and to provide greater role in international economic institutions.
15. India responded to growth of Cold War into two fold. First, it stayed away from alliances and secondary, it raised voice against newly decolonised countries becoming part of either the alliance.
16. NAM served India’s interests also to participate in international decisions and maintained balance between two superpowers.
17. India’s policy was criticised on grounds of possessing contradictory postures i.e. signed treaty of friendship with the USSR in August 1971 for 20 years and developed good relations with the US during Bangladesh crisis.
18. It is said that NAM has lost its relevance after disintegration of USSR and end of cold war in 1991.
19. NAM is based on a resolve to democratise international system to redress existing inequities that poor and very small countries need not to follow any of the big powers instead they can pursue an independent foreign policy also.
20. These core values make NAM relevant even in today’s scenario as it has stood of adverse circumstances and served an important purpose of protecting the interests of third world countries.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Cold War: Cold war referred to competitions, tensions and a series of confrontations between the US and USSR.
2. Cuban Missile Crisis: It created tensions between the US and USSR when Soviet Union (USSR) installed missiles in Cuba to make it a Russian base.
3. Allied Forces: Allied forces were one of the two camps during second world war including the US, Soviet Union, Britain and France.
4. Axis Power: It was another camp against allied forces led by German” Italy and Japan.
5. Alliance System: Alliance system was created by the two superpowers to expand their sphere of influence all over the world.
6. Deterrence: It was a logic followed by both the superpowers to avoid large scale destruction
i. e. not to take place hot war between them because both of them had the capacity to retaliate.
7. Neutrality: Neutrality is a condition not to participate in world affairs or make oneself aloof from world.
8. Decolonisation: To make colonised states free from the rule of mother country.
TIMELINE
• 1947 American President Harry Truman’s Doctrine about containment of communism.
• 1947-52 Marshall Plan: US aid for reconstruction of Western Europe.
• 1948-49 Berlin blockade by the Soviet Union.
• 1950-53 Korean War
• 1954 Defeat of the French by Vietnamese at Dien Bien Phu; Signing of Geneva Accord; Division of Vietnam along the 17th parallel formation of SEATO.
• 1954-75 American intervention in Vietnam.
• 1955 Signing of Baghdad Pact, later CENTO.
• 1956 Soviet intervention in Hungary.
• 1961 US-sponsored Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba construction of Berlin Wall.
• 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis
• 1965 American Intervention in the Dominican Republic
• 1968 Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia.
• 1972 US President Richard Nixon’s visit to China
• 1978-89 Vietnamese intervention in Cambodia
• 1979-89 Soviet intervention in Afghanistan
• 1985 Gorbachev becomes the president of the USSR and begins reform process.
• 1989 Fall of Berlin Wall
• 1990 Unification of Germany
• 1991 Disintegration of Soviet Union, End of the Cold War era.
1. Cuban Missile Crisis made whole world nervous by creating clashes between the two superpowers, the US and Soviet Union namely Cold War.
2. Cold War referred to competitions, tensions and series of confrontations between the US and USSR.
3. In 1945, with the end of Second World War, Cold War began when the US dropped bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in diplomatic manner to warn Soviet Union.
4. Both the powers became reluctant to initiate war to protect world from large scale destruction as they were a.vare that it will not lead only political aim to them.
5. The greed of expansion of their spheres of influence divided the world into alliances. The
US built NATO, South East Asian Treaty Organisation (SEATO) and Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO).
6. The Soviet UnrIri created Eastern alliance known as WARSAW PACT.
7. Smaller states „Maine either the alliance to get the promise of protection, weapons and economic aid against their local rivals.
8. Superpower required them to gain on access to vital resources, territory to launch weapons and troops, to spy on each other and economic support.
9. Despite of occurring crisis in Korea, Vietnam and Afghanistan, both the superpowers behaved rationally and responsibly.
10. Both the superpowers maintained ‘arms control’ by signing various treaties as Limited Test Ban Treaty, Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty and Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.
11. Countries outside the two blocs known as NAM (Non-Aligned Movement), joined by decolonised countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, played a crucial role in reducing cold war conflicts to maintain peace and stability all over the world.
12. Five founder members of NAM were Yugoslavia’s Josip Broz Tito, India’s JL Nehru, Egypt’s leader Gamal Abdel Nasser, Indonesia’s Sukarno and Ghana’s Kwame Nkrumah.
13. The majority of NAM members was categorised as Least Developed Countries (LDCs) which initiated economic development under the head of New International Economic Order (NIEO).
14. The United Nations Conference of Trade and Development (UNCTAD) brought out a report in 1972 to propose to give the LDCs control over their natural resources, to make western market available to them to reduce cost of technology and to provide greater role in international economic institutions.
15. India responded to growth of Cold War into two fold. First, it stayed away from alliances and secondary, it raised voice against newly decolonised countries becoming part of either the alliance.
16. NAM served India’s interests also to participate in international decisions and maintained balance between two superpowers.
17. India’s policy was criticised on grounds of possessing contradictory postures i.e. signed treaty of friendship with the USSR in August 1971 for 20 years and developed good relations with the US during Bangladesh crisis.
18. It is said that NAM has lost its relevance after disintegration of USSR and end of cold war in 1991.
19. NAM is based on a resolve to democratise international system to redress existing inequities that poor and very small countries need not to follow any of the big powers instead they can pursue an independent foreign policy also.
20. These core values make NAM relevant even in today’s scenario as it has stood of adverse circumstances and served an important purpose of protecting the interests of third world countries.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Cold War: Cold war referred to competitions, tensions and a series of confrontations between the US and USSR.
2. Cuban Missile Crisis: It created tensions between the US and USSR when Soviet Union (USSR) installed missiles in Cuba to make it a Russian base.
3. Allied Forces: Allied forces were one of the two camps during second world war including the US, Soviet Union, Britain and France.
4. Axis Power: It was another camp against allied forces led by German” Italy and Japan.
5. Alliance System: Alliance system was created by the two superpowers to expand their sphere of influence all over the world.
6. Deterrence: It was a logic followed by both the superpowers to avoid large scale destruction
i. e. not to take place hot war between them because both of them had the capacity to retaliate.
7. Neutrality: Neutrality is a condition not to participate in world affairs or make oneself aloof from world.
8. Decolonisation: To make colonised states free from the rule of mother country.
TIMELINE
• 1947 American President Harry Truman’s Doctrine about containment of communism.
• 1947-52 Marshall Plan: US aid for reconstruction of Western Europe.
• 1948-49 Berlin blockade by the Soviet Union.
• 1950-53 Korean War
• 1954 Defeat of the French by Vietnamese at Dien Bien Phu; Signing of Geneva Accord; Division of Vietnam along the 17th parallel formation of SEATO.
• 1954-75 American intervention in Vietnam.
• 1955 Signing of Baghdad Pact, later CENTO.
• 1956 Soviet intervention in Hungary.
• 1961 US-sponsored Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba construction of Berlin Wall.
• 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis
• 1965 American Intervention in the Dominican Republic
• 1968 Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia.
• 1972 US President Richard Nixon’s visit to China
• 1978-89 Vietnamese intervention in Cambodia
• 1979-89 Soviet intervention in Afghanistan
• 1985 Gorbachev becomes the president of the USSR and begins reform process.
• 1989 Fall of Berlin Wall
• 1990 Unification of Germany
• 1991 Disintegration of Soviet Union, End of the Cold War era.
Ch-2
The End of Bipolarity
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. The Socialist Revolution in Russia in 1917
gave birth to USSR with inspiration of socialism, ensure a minimum standard of
living for all its citizens and also the government subsidised basic
necessities and productive assets were owned and controlled by the state.
2. Russia was the only republic among fifteen
republics who dominates everything and people in the region.
3. Soviet Union lagged behind the west in
technology, infrastructure and could not fulfil political aspirations of
people. Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 also weakened the system
furthermore.
4. Mikhail Gorbachev, General Secretary of
Communist Party of Soviet Union in 1985 initiated the policies of economic and
political reforms to democratise the system which were opposed by leaders
within communist party and contradictory view of people.
5. The people of republic had been fed up with
old style rule of Soviet bloc and in Dec 1991, under the leadership of Boris
Yeltsin (an elected leader), Russia, Ukraine and Baltics declared themselves
independent.
6. The formation of Commonwealth of Independent
States (CIS) came as a surprise and the exclusion of these states was resolved
by making them founder members of the CIS.
7. Russia was accepted as successor state of
Soviet Union by inheriting a Soviet seat in UN Security Council, who accepted
all international treaties and commitments of Soviet Union and carried out some
nuclear disarmament measures with the US.
8. Now Soviet Union had been disintegrated on
the grounds to maintain nuclear and military arsenals, awareness of people of
their backwardness than western capitalism as well as alienation of ordinary
people who were exempted from any kind of privileges.
9. The rise of nationalism and the desire for
sovereignty within republics like Russia, the Baltic Republics (Estonia,
Latvia, Lithuania), Ukraine, Georgia and others proved to be the most immediate
cause for disintegration of USSR.
10. Disintegration of USSR resulted into the end
of Cold War confrontations, created dominant capitalist system, emerged many
new states and the advantage was taken by Central Asian countries of their
geographical locations by maintaining relations with Russia, the West, the US,
China and others.
11. The process of transition from an
authoritarian socialist system to a democratic capitalist system in Russia,
Central Asia and East Europe was influenced by World Bank and IMF came to be
known as Shock Therapy.
12. Shock Therapy involved privatisation of
property, private firms emergence, complete switch over to free trade and
Foreign Direct Investment, Financial opening up, Currency convertibility as
well as break up of existing trade alliances among the countries of Soviet Bloc
to maintain relations directly with the West.
13. Shock Therapy resulted in the largest garage
sale in history, declined value of Russian Currency ‘Ruble’, due to inflation,
food was imported, destroyed Old Social Welfare System, Migration of educated
and intellectual manpower and disparities due to privatisation between rich and
poor regions of Russia.
14. The constitution of newly democratic
institutions was drafted in a hurry where strong executives appointed
themselves as presidents due to weak Parliament and lack of independent
judiciary as in Russia, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.
15. Russia revived in 2000 due to export of
natural resources like oil, natural gas and minerals which were available in
abundance in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. And
from where these pipelines crossed, were paid on rent.
16. Most of the former Soviet Republics had
civil wars and insurgencies as in Russia, two republics Chechnya and Dagestan
had violent secessionist movements, in Central Asia. Civil War took place in
Azerbaijan and Georgia. Czechoslovakia was also split into two. Even countries
and provinces like Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan, and Georgia are fighting over river
water leading to instability and making life difficult for ordinary people.
17. The Central Asian Republics were rich in
hydrocarbon resources for economic benefit as Oil Companies and outside powers
had a competition to exploit these natural resources. Also, the US approached
them to hire bases and territories during wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.
18. Russia and India share a vision of
multipolar world order, collective security, greater regionalism, negotiated
settlements of international conflicts, on independent foreign policy and
decision making through UN.
19. India is benefitted from Russia on issues of
Kashmir, energy supplies, sharing information on international terrorism,
access to Central Asia and balancing its relations with China. In return,
Russia has also been benefitted from India on the ground of second largest arms
market for Russia.
WORDS
THAT MATTER
1. Soviet
System: Soviet system was
introduced after Russian Revolution in 1917 based on the principles of
egalitarian society and planned economy controlled by the state.
2.
Socialist Bloc: The east
European countries were known as Socialist Bloc because these countries were
liberated from the fascist forces and their political and economic systems were
based on this bloc only.
3. Capitalist
Economy: In this economy,
land and productive assets are owned and controlled by the Capitalists.
4.
Unipolar System: Affairs at
international level are dominated by only one superpower.
5.
Multipolar System: Affairs
at international level can not be dominated by one superpower only, instead
group of countries play an important role.
6.
Egalitarian Society: It
believes that all people are equally important and should have the same rights
and opportunities in life.
7.
Largest Garage Sale: It was
resulted due to Shock Therapy to undervalue the valuable industries of USSR to
sell them at throwaway prices.
8. Shock
Therapy: The model of
transition from authoritarian socialist system to a democratic capitalist
system in Russia, Central Asia and East Europe under the influence of the World
Bank and IMF.
TIMELINE
• March
1985 Mikhail Gorbachev
electced as the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union;
appoints Boris Yeltsin as the head of the Communist Party in Moscow; initiates
a series of reforms in the Soviet Union.
• 1988 Independence movement begins in Lithuania;
later spreads to Estonia and Latvia.
• October
1989 Soviet Union declares
that the Warsaw Pact members are free to decide their own future; Berlin Wall
falls in November.
•
February 1990 Gorbachev
strips the Soviet Communist Party of its 72-year long monopoly on power by
calling on the Soviet Parliament (Duma) to permit multiparty politics.
• March
1990 Lithuania becomes the
first of the 15 Soviet republics to declare its independence.
• June
1990 Russian parliament
declares its dependence from the Soviet Union.
• June
1991 Yeltsin, no longer in
the Communist Party, becomes the President of Russia.
• August
1991 The Communist Party
hardliners stage an abortive coup against Gorbachev.
•
September 1991 Three Baltic
republics of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania becomes UN members (Later join NATO
in March 2004).
•
December 991 Russia,
Belarus and Ukraine decided to annul the 1992 Treaty on the creation of the
USSR and establish the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS); Armenia,
Azerbaijan, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and
Uzbekistan joined the CIS (Georgia joined later in 1993); Russia took ones the
USSR seat in the United Nations.
• 25
December 1991 Gorbachev
resigns as the President of the Soviet Union; the end of the Soviet Union.
1. The Socialist Revolution in Russia in 1917 gave birth to USSR with inspiration of socialism, ensure a minimum standard of living for all its citizens and also the government subsidised basic necessities and productive assets were owned and controlled by the state.
2. Russia was the only republic among fifteen republics who dominates everything and people in the region.
3. Soviet Union lagged behind the west in technology, infrastructure and could not fulfil political aspirations of people. Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 also weakened the system furthermore.
4. Mikhail Gorbachev, General Secretary of Communist Party of Soviet Union in 1985 initiated the policies of economic and political reforms to democratise the system which were opposed by leaders within communist party and contradictory view of people.
5. The people of republic had been fed up with old style rule of Soviet bloc and in Dec 1991, under the leadership of Boris Yeltsin (an elected leader), Russia, Ukraine and Baltics declared themselves independent.
6. The formation of Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) came as a surprise and the exclusion of these states was resolved by making them founder members of the CIS.
7. Russia was accepted as successor state of Soviet Union by inheriting a Soviet seat in UN Security Council, who accepted all international treaties and commitments of Soviet Union and carried out some nuclear disarmament measures with the US.
8. Now Soviet Union had been disintegrated on the grounds to maintain nuclear and military arsenals, awareness of people of their backwardness than western capitalism as well as alienation of ordinary people who were exempted from any kind of privileges.
9. The rise of nationalism and the desire for sovereignty within republics like Russia, the Baltic Republics (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), Ukraine, Georgia and others proved to be the most immediate cause for disintegration of USSR.
10. Disintegration of USSR resulted into the end of Cold War confrontations, created dominant capitalist system, emerged many new states and the advantage was taken by Central Asian countries of their geographical locations by maintaining relations with Russia, the West, the US, China and others.
11. The process of transition from an authoritarian socialist system to a democratic capitalist system in Russia, Central Asia and East Europe was influenced by World Bank and IMF came to be known as Shock Therapy.
12. Shock Therapy involved privatisation of property, private firms emergence, complete switch over to free trade and Foreign Direct Investment, Financial opening up, Currency convertibility as well as break up of existing trade alliances among the countries of Soviet Bloc to maintain relations directly with the West.
13. Shock Therapy resulted in the largest garage sale in history, declined value of Russian Currency ‘Ruble’, due to inflation, food was imported, destroyed Old Social Welfare System, Migration of educated and intellectual manpower and disparities due to privatisation between rich and poor regions of Russia.
14. The constitution of newly democratic institutions was drafted in a hurry where strong executives appointed themselves as presidents due to weak Parliament and lack of independent judiciary as in Russia, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.
15. Russia revived in 2000 due to export of natural resources like oil, natural gas and minerals which were available in abundance in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. And from where these pipelines crossed, were paid on rent.
16. Most of the former Soviet Republics had civil wars and insurgencies as in Russia, two republics Chechnya and Dagestan had violent secessionist movements, in Central Asia. Civil War took place in Azerbaijan and Georgia. Czechoslovakia was also split into two. Even countries and provinces like Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan, and Georgia are fighting over river water leading to instability and making life difficult for ordinary people.
17. The Central Asian Republics were rich in hydrocarbon resources for economic benefit as Oil Companies and outside powers had a competition to exploit these natural resources. Also, the US approached them to hire bases and territories during wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.
18. Russia and India share a vision of multipolar world order, collective security, greater regionalism, negotiated settlements of international conflicts, on independent foreign policy and decision making through UN.
19. India is benefitted from Russia on issues of Kashmir, energy supplies, sharing information on international terrorism, access to Central Asia and balancing its relations with China. In return, Russia has also been benefitted from India on the ground of second largest arms market for Russia.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Soviet System: Soviet system was introduced after Russian Revolution in 1917 based on the principles of egalitarian society and planned economy controlled by the state.
2. Socialist Bloc: The east European countries were known as Socialist Bloc because these countries were liberated from the fascist forces and their political and economic systems were based on this bloc only.
3. Capitalist Economy: In this economy, land and productive assets are owned and controlled by the Capitalists.
4. Unipolar System: Affairs at international level are dominated by only one superpower.
5. Multipolar System: Affairs at international level can not be dominated by one superpower only, instead group of countries play an important role.
6. Egalitarian Society: It believes that all people are equally important and should have the same rights and opportunities in life.
7. Largest Garage Sale: It was resulted due to Shock Therapy to undervalue the valuable industries of USSR to sell them at throwaway prices.
8. Shock Therapy: The model of transition from authoritarian socialist system to a democratic capitalist system in Russia, Central Asia and East Europe under the influence of the World Bank and IMF.
TIMELINE
• March 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev electced as the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union; appoints Boris Yeltsin as the head of the Communist Party in Moscow; initiates a series of reforms in the Soviet Union.
• 1988 Independence movement begins in Lithuania; later spreads to Estonia and Latvia.
• October 1989 Soviet Union declares that the Warsaw Pact members are free to decide their own future; Berlin Wall falls in November.
• February 1990 Gorbachev strips the Soviet Communist Party of its 72-year long monopoly on power by calling on the Soviet Parliament (Duma) to permit multiparty politics.
• March 1990 Lithuania becomes the first of the 15 Soviet republics to declare its independence.
• June 1990 Russian parliament declares its dependence from the Soviet Union.
• June 1991 Yeltsin, no longer in the Communist Party, becomes the President of Russia.
• August 1991 The Communist Party hardliners stage an abortive coup against Gorbachev.
• September 1991 Three Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania becomes UN members (Later join NATO in March 2004).
• December 991 Russia, Belarus and Ukraine decided to annul the 1992 Treaty on the creation of the USSR and establish the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS); Armenia, Azerbaijan, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan joined the CIS (Georgia joined later in 1993); Russia took ones the USSR seat in the United Nations.
• 25 December 1991 Gorbachev resigns as the President of the Soviet Union; the end of the Soviet Union.
Ch-3
US Hegemony in World Politics
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. America refers to the United States of America. It covers two continents—the North and the South America, the US is only one of the countries of the continent which is a symbol of US hegemony.
2. After the disintegration of USSR in 1991, the first instance of US hegemony came into observation through Operation Desert Storm by the UN during first Gulf War to retreat Iraqi forces from Kuwait. This operation was dominated and won by the US due to vast technological gap between the US military capability and other states.
3. William Jefferson (Bill) Clinton, the newly elected President of the US in 1992 and again
in 1996, focused on soft issues like democracy promotions, climate change and world trade rather than of military power and security. .
4. The above mentioned policies of the US were contradicted in response to Yugoslavian action against predominant Albanian population in Kosovo by targeting bombards through Operation Infinite against Al-Qaeda in response to the bombings of US embassies in Nairobi, Kenya, Dar-es-Salaam and Tanzania in 1998.
5. On 11 September 2001, nineteen hijackers hailing from a number of Arab countries took control of four commercial aircrafts shortly after take off and crushed into World Trade Centre in New York, Pentagon building in Arlington. Virginia (US Defence Department) and the capital building of the US Congress in Pennysylvania, came to be known as event of 9/11 in the US.
6. In response to 9/11, George W. Bush won the elections in the US succeeding Bill Clinton. The US launched Operation Enduring Freedom against all those suspected behind attack in 9/11 mainly Al-Qaeda and Taliban regime.
7. The US forces made arrests all over the world, transported and detained the persons in secret prisons like Guantanamo Bay, a US navy base in Cuba where the prisoners did not enjoy the protection of international law or the law of their own country or that of the US. Even the UN representatives were not allowed to meet these persons.
8. On 19 March 2003, the US launched Operation Iraqi Freedom to prevent Iraq from developing Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) in the ostensible purpose to control oil fields and installing a regime in Iraq friendly to US.
9. Hegemony is an international system with only one centre of power to be gained and retained in the form of military domination, economic political chart and central superiority which was enjoyed only by the US after disintegration of Soviet Union.
10. Hegemony as hard power is based on military capabilities of a country and the US has proved it. The US today spends more on its military than the next 12 powers and even technologically no other power can match with the US.
11. Hegemony as structural power must sustain global structure in economic sense. The US has provided global public goods as sea lanes of communications (SLOCs) as well as accounts for 15 percent of world trade if EU is included and 20 per cent in world economy. The US has contributed basic economic structure in the form of Bretton Woods System and Degree in MBA.
12. Hegemony as soft power implies class ascendency in social, political and ideological spheres which is more effective than coercion to more hand in hand and the US was proved ultimately triumphant in this.
13. Though the US has been a hegemonic power, still it experiences some constraints in itself as institutional architecture (division of power). Open nature of American Society and the presence of only one organisation in international system to moderate the exercise of American Power i.e. NATO.
14. After the collapse of Soviet Union, India decided to liberalise its economy and integrate it with global economy. Hence the US also found India an attractive economic partner due to technological dimension and the role of Indian-American diaspora.
15. India needs an appropriate mix of foreign policy strategies to deal with the US. Either India should maintain aloofness from Washington and comprehend its military power or to establish mutual convergences or to lead a coalition in weaning the hegemony assay from its dominance.
16. To deal with the hegemony, all the states bear the different strategies either to extract benefits by operating within hegemonic system or to stay away as far as possible from dominant power i.e. Russia, China and European Union have opted this policy. Both the policies are known as Bandwagon Strategy and to hide respectively.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. America: It covers two continents of North and South America and the US is only one of the countries of American continent that symbolises US hegemony.
2. 9/11: To denote a series of attacks on the US by hijackers from Arab countries on 11 Sep, 2001. It was the most disastrous attack on the US.
3. Guantanamo Bay: A naval base in Cuba set up by the US where prisoners are forbidden of the protection of international law or law of their own country or that of the US.
4. Hegemony: An international system to dominate world by only one superpower.
5. Qualitative Gap: It signifies US superiority in technology and no other power could dare to challenge the US.
6. Bandwagon Strategy: To extract benefits by operating within hegemonic system in place of opposing it.
7. Global Village: It refers to the US as the village headman and all the nations as its members are neighbours.
8. Manufacturing Consent: It refers to win the consent of countries to the dominating power in a manner favourable to ascendancy of the dominant class.
9. Bretton Woods System: A basic economic structure of world set up by the US after Second World War.
10. Sea Lanes of Communication (SLOCs): It is the naval power of hegemony that underwrites the law of the sea and ensures freedom of navigation in international waters. These sea routes commonly waded by merchant ships
1. America refers to the United States of America. It covers two continents—the North and the South America, the US is only one of the countries of the continent which is a symbol of US hegemony.
2. After the disintegration of USSR in 1991, the first instance of US hegemony came into observation through Operation Desert Storm by the UN during first Gulf War to retreat Iraqi forces from Kuwait. This operation was dominated and won by the US due to vast technological gap between the US military capability and other states.
3. William Jefferson (Bill) Clinton, the newly elected President of the US in 1992 and again
in 1996, focused on soft issues like democracy promotions, climate change and world trade rather than of military power and security. .
4. The above mentioned policies of the US were contradicted in response to Yugoslavian action against predominant Albanian population in Kosovo by targeting bombards through Operation Infinite against Al-Qaeda in response to the bombings of US embassies in Nairobi, Kenya, Dar-es-Salaam and Tanzania in 1998.
5. On 11 September 2001, nineteen hijackers hailing from a number of Arab countries took control of four commercial aircrafts shortly after take off and crushed into World Trade Centre in New York, Pentagon building in Arlington. Virginia (US Defence Department) and the capital building of the US Congress in Pennysylvania, came to be known as event of 9/11 in the US.
6. In response to 9/11, George W. Bush won the elections in the US succeeding Bill Clinton. The US launched Operation Enduring Freedom against all those suspected behind attack in 9/11 mainly Al-Qaeda and Taliban regime.
7. The US forces made arrests all over the world, transported and detained the persons in secret prisons like Guantanamo Bay, a US navy base in Cuba where the prisoners did not enjoy the protection of international law or the law of their own country or that of the US. Even the UN representatives were not allowed to meet these persons.
8. On 19 March 2003, the US launched Operation Iraqi Freedom to prevent Iraq from developing Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) in the ostensible purpose to control oil fields and installing a regime in Iraq friendly to US.
9. Hegemony is an international system with only one centre of power to be gained and retained in the form of military domination, economic political chart and central superiority which was enjoyed only by the US after disintegration of Soviet Union.
10. Hegemony as hard power is based on military capabilities of a country and the US has proved it. The US today spends more on its military than the next 12 powers and even technologically no other power can match with the US.
11. Hegemony as structural power must sustain global structure in economic sense. The US has provided global public goods as sea lanes of communications (SLOCs) as well as accounts for 15 percent of world trade if EU is included and 20 per cent in world economy. The US has contributed basic economic structure in the form of Bretton Woods System and Degree in MBA.
12. Hegemony as soft power implies class ascendency in social, political and ideological spheres which is more effective than coercion to more hand in hand and the US was proved ultimately triumphant in this.
13. Though the US has been a hegemonic power, still it experiences some constraints in itself as institutional architecture (division of power). Open nature of American Society and the presence of only one organisation in international system to moderate the exercise of American Power i.e. NATO.
14. After the collapse of Soviet Union, India decided to liberalise its economy and integrate it with global economy. Hence the US also found India an attractive economic partner due to technological dimension and the role of Indian-American diaspora.
15. India needs an appropriate mix of foreign policy strategies to deal with the US. Either India should maintain aloofness from Washington and comprehend its military power or to establish mutual convergences or to lead a coalition in weaning the hegemony assay from its dominance.
16. To deal with the hegemony, all the states bear the different strategies either to extract benefits by operating within hegemonic system or to stay away as far as possible from dominant power i.e. Russia, China and European Union have opted this policy. Both the policies are known as Bandwagon Strategy and to hide respectively.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. America: It covers two continents of North and South America and the US is only one of the countries of American continent that symbolises US hegemony.
2. 9/11: To denote a series of attacks on the US by hijackers from Arab countries on 11 Sep, 2001. It was the most disastrous attack on the US.
3. Guantanamo Bay: A naval base in Cuba set up by the US where prisoners are forbidden of the protection of international law or law of their own country or that of the US.
4. Hegemony: An international system to dominate world by only one superpower.
5. Qualitative Gap: It signifies US superiority in technology and no other power could dare to challenge the US.
6. Bandwagon Strategy: To extract benefits by operating within hegemonic system in place of opposing it.
7. Global Village: It refers to the US as the village headman and all the nations as its members are neighbours.
8. Manufacturing Consent: It refers to win the consent of countries to the dominating power in a manner favourable to ascendancy of the dominant class.
9. Bretton Woods System: A basic economic structure of world set up by the US after Second World War.
10. Sea Lanes of Communication (SLOCs): It is the naval power of hegemony that underwrites the law of the sea and ensures freedom of navigation in international waters. These sea routes commonly waded by merchant ships
Ch-4
Alternative Centres of Power
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. After the Second World War, Europe shattered the assumptions and structures on which the European states had based their relations.
2. To revive European economy, the US introduced ‘Marshall Plan’ to establish organisation for European Economic Cooperation in 1948. Through OEEL, Western European States began to cooperate on trade and economic issues.
3. European Union established in 1992, was a group of European Capitalist countries with a common foreign and security policy, cooperation on justice and home affairs and creation of single currency and also has its own flag, anthem and founding date.
4. The European Union has economic, political, diplomatic and military influence as the EU is the world’s biggest economy which gives it influence over its closest neighbours and in Asia and Africa. And it functions as an important bloc in international world economic organisation as the World Trade Organisation.
5. In political and diplomatic influence, two members of EU, Britain and France hold permanent seat in the UN Security Council as well as non-permanent members in UNSC which enabled to influence the US policies i.e. current position on Iran’s nuclear programme, use of diplomacy, economic investment and in case of a dialogue with China on human rights and environmental degradation.
6. Militarily, the EU’s combined armed forces are the second largest in the world by spending second after the US and Britain and France also have nuclear arsenal. And it is the most important source of space and communications technology also.
7. Though EU bears common interests. Still, its member states have their own foreign relations and defence policies that are often at odds with each other i.e. Britain favoured the US’s Iraq invasion which other members of EU Germany and France opposed America’s this policy. All these limit the ability of the EU to act in matters of foreign relations and defence.
8. Before and during the Second World War South East regions of Asia suffered economic political consequences of repeated colonialism as well as at the end of war it confronted with the problems of nation building which gave birth to Association of South East Asian Nations popularly known as ASEAN for uniform cooperation and interaction.
9. ASEAN was established in 1967 by five countries of this region-Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand by signing the Bangkok Declaration. Over the years Brunei, Darussalam, Vietnam, Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Cambodia made its strength to ten.
10. ASEAN countries celebrated the ASEAN WAY’, a form of informal interaction, non-confrontation and cooperation standing on three pillars in 2003 i.e. ASEAN Security Committee, ASEAN Economic Committee and ASEAN Socio-Cultural Committee.
11. ASEAN VISION 2020 encourages negotiations over the conflicts in the region by mediating the end of Cambodian conflict, East Umar Crisis and meets annually to discuss East Asian Cooperation.
12. In recent years, India has also tried to make agreements with ASEAN by signing Free Trade Areas with two ASEAN members—Singapore and Thailand as well as signed on FTA with ASEAN itself.
13. China emerged as the fastest growing economy since economic reforms of 1978 to be projected to overtake the US as the world’s largest economy by 2040 with the economic strength of population, land mass, resources, regional location and political influence.
14. After independence of People’s Republic of China in 1949, Soviet model of economy was adopted under the leadership of Mao by assuring employment, social welfare, education to all and better health as China began to use its own resources and grow Chinese economy at the rate of 5-6 percent.
15. China ended its political and economic isolation with major policy decisions taken in 1970s. These included China-US relations establishment in 1972, four areas of modernisation (Agriculture, Industry, Science and Technology) in 1973, open door policy in 1978, privatisation of agriculture and industries in 1982 and 1990 and setting up of special Economic Zones.
16. Regionally and globally China is going to be recognised as an economic power due to contributory factors i.e. integration and interdependency have tempered its issues with Japan, the US, ASEAN, Russia, Taiwan. Even China’s outward-looking investment and aid policies in Latin America and Africa are projecting it as a global player.
17. Indo-China relations experienced friendly gestures at the moments, but 1950 onwards both the nations were involved in the differences on the issues of Tibet problem, border issues in Arunachal Pradesh and Aksai Chin area of Ladakh, Chinese attack in 1962 and Chinese contribution to Pakistan’s nuclear programme.
18. Relations between India and China began to improve slowly from the mid-1970, by a series of talks to resolve border issues in 1981 and now these relations have strategic and economic dimensions.
19. Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to China in 1980, Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s visit in 2003 have accommodated both the countries to maintain peace and tranquillity on the border.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. European Union: A group of European Capitalist countries established in 1992 founded for common goals of foreign and security policy, cooperation and home affairs.
2. OEEC: Organisation for European Economic Cooperation established in 1948 to channel aid to West European states to cooperate on trade and economic issues.
3. Marshall Plan: It was introduced by America to provide financial help for revival of European economy.
4. ASEAN: Association of South East Asian Nations to accelerate economic growth through social progress and cultural development.
5. ASEAN WAY: An interaction that is informal, non-confrontationists and cooperative to promote supernational structures.
6. ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF): An organisation established in 1994 to promote coordination of security and foreign policy.
7. Special Economic Zones (SEZs): Foreign investors could set up their own enterprises in these zones.
8. Open Door Policy: To invite investment of capital and technology from abroad.
9. Three Pillars of ASEAN Community: ASEAN Security Community, ASEAN Economic Community, ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community.
TIMELINE
1. April 1951: Six West European Countries, France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg sign the Treaty of Paris establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).
2. March 25, 1957: These six countries sign the treaties of Rome establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM).
3. January 1973: Denmark, Ireland and United Kingdom join the European Community.
4. June 1979: First direct elections to the European Parliament.
5. January 1981: Greece joins the EC.
6. June 1985: The Schengen Agreement abolishes border controls among the EC numbers.
7. January 1986: Spain and Portugal join the EC.
8. October 1990: Unification of Germany.
9. February 7, 1992: Treaty of Maastricht was signed establishing the European Union.
10. January 1993: The single market was created.
11. January 1995: Austria, Finland and Sweden join the EU.
12. January 2002: Euro, the new currency, was introduced in the 12 EU members.
13. May 2004: Ten new members Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia join the EU.
14. January 2007: Bulgaria and Romania join the EU. Slovenia adopts the EURO.
1. After the Second World War, Europe shattered the assumptions and structures on which the European states had based their relations.
2. To revive European economy, the US introduced ‘Marshall Plan’ to establish organisation for European Economic Cooperation in 1948. Through OEEL, Western European States began to cooperate on trade and economic issues.
3. European Union established in 1992, was a group of European Capitalist countries with a common foreign and security policy, cooperation on justice and home affairs and creation of single currency and also has its own flag, anthem and founding date.
4. The European Union has economic, political, diplomatic and military influence as the EU is the world’s biggest economy which gives it influence over its closest neighbours and in Asia and Africa. And it functions as an important bloc in international world economic organisation as the World Trade Organisation.
5. In political and diplomatic influence, two members of EU, Britain and France hold permanent seat in the UN Security Council as well as non-permanent members in UNSC which enabled to influence the US policies i.e. current position on Iran’s nuclear programme, use of diplomacy, economic investment and in case of a dialogue with China on human rights and environmental degradation.
6. Militarily, the EU’s combined armed forces are the second largest in the world by spending second after the US and Britain and France also have nuclear arsenal. And it is the most important source of space and communications technology also.
7. Though EU bears common interests. Still, its member states have their own foreign relations and defence policies that are often at odds with each other i.e. Britain favoured the US’s Iraq invasion which other members of EU Germany and France opposed America’s this policy. All these limit the ability of the EU to act in matters of foreign relations and defence.
8. Before and during the Second World War South East regions of Asia suffered economic political consequences of repeated colonialism as well as at the end of war it confronted with the problems of nation building which gave birth to Association of South East Asian Nations popularly known as ASEAN for uniform cooperation and interaction.
9. ASEAN was established in 1967 by five countries of this region-Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand by signing the Bangkok Declaration. Over the years Brunei, Darussalam, Vietnam, Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Cambodia made its strength to ten.
10. ASEAN countries celebrated the ASEAN WAY’, a form of informal interaction, non-confrontation and cooperation standing on three pillars in 2003 i.e. ASEAN Security Committee, ASEAN Economic Committee and ASEAN Socio-Cultural Committee.
11. ASEAN VISION 2020 encourages negotiations over the conflicts in the region by mediating the end of Cambodian conflict, East Umar Crisis and meets annually to discuss East Asian Cooperation.
12. In recent years, India has also tried to make agreements with ASEAN by signing Free Trade Areas with two ASEAN members—Singapore and Thailand as well as signed on FTA with ASEAN itself.
13. China emerged as the fastest growing economy since economic reforms of 1978 to be projected to overtake the US as the world’s largest economy by 2040 with the economic strength of population, land mass, resources, regional location and political influence.
14. After independence of People’s Republic of China in 1949, Soviet model of economy was adopted under the leadership of Mao by assuring employment, social welfare, education to all and better health as China began to use its own resources and grow Chinese economy at the rate of 5-6 percent.
15. China ended its political and economic isolation with major policy decisions taken in 1970s. These included China-US relations establishment in 1972, four areas of modernisation (Agriculture, Industry, Science and Technology) in 1973, open door policy in 1978, privatisation of agriculture and industries in 1982 and 1990 and setting up of special Economic Zones.
16. Regionally and globally China is going to be recognised as an economic power due to contributory factors i.e. integration and interdependency have tempered its issues with Japan, the US, ASEAN, Russia, Taiwan. Even China’s outward-looking investment and aid policies in Latin America and Africa are projecting it as a global player.
17. Indo-China relations experienced friendly gestures at the moments, but 1950 onwards both the nations were involved in the differences on the issues of Tibet problem, border issues in Arunachal Pradesh and Aksai Chin area of Ladakh, Chinese attack in 1962 and Chinese contribution to Pakistan’s nuclear programme.
18. Relations between India and China began to improve slowly from the mid-1970, by a series of talks to resolve border issues in 1981 and now these relations have strategic and economic dimensions.
19. Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to China in 1980, Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s visit in 2003 have accommodated both the countries to maintain peace and tranquillity on the border.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. European Union: A group of European Capitalist countries established in 1992 founded for common goals of foreign and security policy, cooperation and home affairs.
2. OEEC: Organisation for European Economic Cooperation established in 1948 to channel aid to West European states to cooperate on trade and economic issues.
3. Marshall Plan: It was introduced by America to provide financial help for revival of European economy.
4. ASEAN: Association of South East Asian Nations to accelerate economic growth through social progress and cultural development.
5. ASEAN WAY: An interaction that is informal, non-confrontationists and cooperative to promote supernational structures.
6. ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF): An organisation established in 1994 to promote coordination of security and foreign policy.
7. Special Economic Zones (SEZs): Foreign investors could set up their own enterprises in these zones.
8. Open Door Policy: To invite investment of capital and technology from abroad.
9. Three Pillars of ASEAN Community: ASEAN Security Community, ASEAN Economic Community, ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community.
TIMELINE
1. April 1951: Six West European Countries, France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg sign the Treaty of Paris establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).
2. March 25, 1957: These six countries sign the treaties of Rome establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM).
3. January 1973: Denmark, Ireland and United Kingdom join the European Community.
4. June 1979: First direct elections to the European Parliament.
5. January 1981: Greece joins the EC.
6. June 1985: The Schengen Agreement abolishes border controls among the EC numbers.
7. January 1986: Spain and Portugal join the EC.
8. October 1990: Unification of Germany.
9. February 7, 1992: Treaty of Maastricht was signed establishing the European Union.
10. January 1993: The single market was created.
11. January 1995: Austria, Finland and Sweden join the EU.
12. January 2002: Euro, the new currency, was introduced in the 12 EU members.
13. May 2004: Ten new members Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia join the EU.
14. January 2007: Bulgaria and Romania join the EU. Slovenia adopts the EURO.
Ch-5
Contemporary South Asia
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. South Asia is referred to as a group of seven countries namely Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka which stand for diversity in every sense and constitutes geopolitical space.
2. Despite the mixed record of democratic experience, the people in these countries share an aspiration for democracy which can be drawn from the examples of Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Maldives.
3. Pakistan began Post Cold War period with successive democratic governments but suffered a military coup in 1999. In Nepal successful uprising led to restoration of democracy in 2006. India and Sri Lanka have also operated a democratic system, despite many limitations and even Maldives have strengthened democracy.
4. In Pakistan, military rule and democracy are two sides of the coin because, during implementation of first constitution, General Ayub Khan took the command by-elections, but thrown away by military due to dissatisfaction of his rule. After 1971, an elected government was formed under the leadership of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, removed by General Zia-Ul-Haq in 1977.
5. Again in 1982, in Pakistan, by a pro-democracy protest, democratic government was established in 1988 under the leadership of Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif. Later on, the history repeated and General Pervez Musharraf took the command in 1999 and got elected in 2005 to be continued till date.
6. Bangladesh was formed by migrants from West Pakistan and refused to form government by East Pakistan despite winning all the seats. India intervened and supported the demand of creation of East Pakistan financially and militarily. Consequently, in December 1971, Pakistan surrendered with the formation of an independent country named Bangladesh.
7. Bangladesh drafted its own constitution declaring faith in secularism, democracy and socialism. In 1975, Sheikh Mujibur Rehman formed presidential setup, but was assassinated in a military uprising. The new military ruler Ziaur Rahman formed his own Bangladesh National Party and won elections in 1979. He was assassinated and another military take over followed under the leadership of Gen. H.M. Ershad. Since 1991, representative democracy has been working in Bangladesh.
8. Nepal was a Hindu Kingdom and became constitutional monarchy in modern period. The struggle for restoration of democracy began in 1990 and 2007 when king restored house of representatives. Even today Nepal is demanding the formation of constituent assembly.
9. Ceylon, presently known as Sri Lanka experienced an ethnic conflict between Sinhalese and Tamils for power sharing. LTTE demanded a separate state for Tamil 1983 onwards with the support of Indian government who sent Indian Peace Keeping Forces there which was not liked by Sri Lankans.
10. Sri Lanka has maintained a democratic political system with a considerable economic growth i.e. one of the first developing countries to control population growth rate, liberalized economy, and bears highest per capita gross Domestic Product despite the ongoing conflicts.
11. India-Pakistan conflicts in South Asian region is most important to be sorted out. The wars between these countries took place in 1947-48,1965 and 1971 on the issues of Pak Occupied Kashmir (POK) and Line of Control (LOC). Except, other issues of conflicts are control of Siachin glacier, acquisition of arms and sharing of river water.
12. Both the governments are suspicious to each other on the ground of Pakistani strategy to help Kashmiri militants and ISI to be involved in Anti-India campaign. Pakistan blames India for making trouble in Sindh and Baluchistan.
India and Bangladesh experienced differences over the issues of sharing of Ganga and
Brahmaputra river water, illegal immigration to India, support for anti Indian-Islamic fundamentalists, refusal to allow Indian troops and not to export natural gas to India. It is the main link of India’s ‘Look East’ Policy.
14. India and Nepal also bear differences on the issues of Nepal’s relations with China and inaction against anti-Indian elements i.e. Maoists. But still both the countries signed the treaty of trade and commerce in 2005 and friendship in 2006 to provide financial and technical assistance and to allow citizens to move without visas and passport.
15. India and Bhutan do not share any major conflict, but attached on the issues to need out the guerrillas and militants from North-eastern India and involvement of India also in big hydroelectric projects in Bhutan is the biggest source of development aid.
16. India is supportive to Maldives in their economy, tourism and fisheries. In November 1988, India reacted quickly against an attack from Tamil Mercenaries on Maldives.
17. In spite of the above-mentioned conflicts and differences, states of South Asia recognise cooperation and friendly relations among themselves. Hence, a major regional initiative has been taken in the form of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in 1982. SAARC members signed South Asian Free Trade Agreements (SAFTA) to form free trade zone for the whole South Asia.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Geo-Politics: Geo-politics refers to the Association of countries who are bound with each
other geographically and their interests are also interlinked with each other politically and economically.
2. Bilateral Talks: Talks involving the two countries without any other mediation.
3. Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF): It was sent by India in Sri Lanka to support the demand of Tamils to be recognised.
4. Seven Party Alliance (SPA): An alliance of seven parties in Nepal which also demanded an end to monarch.
5. SAARC: It stands for South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation having seven members and aims at mutual trust and understanding.
6. SAFTA: It is South Asia Free Trade Area Agreement to trade free from custom restrictions and duties by its member states.
7. LTTE: The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam in Sri Lanka which demanded a separate state for Tamils.
TIMELINE
1. 1947: India and Pakistan emerge as an independent nation after the end of British rule.
2. 1948: Sri Lanka gains independence. Indo-Pak conflict over Kashmir.
3. 1954-55: Pakistan joins the Cold War military blocs, SEATO and CENTO.
4. September 1960: India and Pakistan sign Indus Waters Treaty.
5. 1962: Border conflicts between India and China.
6. 1965: Indo-Pak War, UN India-Pakistan Observation Mission.
7. 1966: India and Pakistan sign the Tashkent Agreement: Six-Point proposal of Sheikh Mujib- ur-Rahman for greater autonomy to East Pakistan.
8. March 1971: Proclamation of independence by leaders of Bangladesh.
9. August 1971: Indo-Soviet Treaty of friendship signed for 20 years.
10. December 1971: Indo-Pak war, Liberation of Bangladesh.
11. July 1972: India and Pakistan sign the Shimla Agreement.
12. May 1974: India conducts nuclear test.
13. 1976: Pakistan and Bangladesh establish diplomatic relations.
14. December 1985: South Asian leaders sign the SAARC Charter at the first summit in Dhaka.
15. 1987: Indo-Sri Lanka Accord: Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) operation in Sri Lanka (1987-90).
16. 1988: India sends troops to the Maldives to foil a coup attempt by mercenaries.
India and Pakistan sign the agreement not to attack nuclear installations and facilities of each other.
17. 1988-91: Democracy restoration in Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal.
18. December 1996: India and Bangladesh sign the Farakka Treaty for sharing of the Ganga waters.
19. May 1998: India and Pakistan conduct nuclear tests.
20. December: India and Sri Lanka sign the Free Trade Agreement (FTA)
21. February 1999: Indian PM Vajpayee undertakes bus journey to Lahore to sign a Peace Declaration.
22. June-July 1999: Kargil conflict between India and Pakistan.
23. July 2001: Vajpayee-Musharraf Agra Summit unsuccessful.
24. January 2004: SAFTA signed at the 12th SAARC Summit in Islamabad.
1. South Asia is referred to as a group of seven countries namely Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka which stand for diversity in every sense and constitutes geopolitical space.
2. Despite the mixed record of democratic experience, the people in these countries share an aspiration for democracy which can be drawn from the examples of Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Maldives.
3. Pakistan began Post Cold War period with successive democratic governments but suffered a military coup in 1999. In Nepal successful uprising led to restoration of democracy in 2006. India and Sri Lanka have also operated a democratic system, despite many limitations and even Maldives have strengthened democracy.
4. In Pakistan, military rule and democracy are two sides of the coin because, during implementation of first constitution, General Ayub Khan took the command by-elections, but thrown away by military due to dissatisfaction of his rule. After 1971, an elected government was formed under the leadership of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, removed by General Zia-Ul-Haq in 1977.
5. Again in 1982, in Pakistan, by a pro-democracy protest, democratic government was established in 1988 under the leadership of Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif. Later on, the history repeated and General Pervez Musharraf took the command in 1999 and got elected in 2005 to be continued till date.
6. Bangladesh was formed by migrants from West Pakistan and refused to form government by East Pakistan despite winning all the seats. India intervened and supported the demand of creation of East Pakistan financially and militarily. Consequently, in December 1971, Pakistan surrendered with the formation of an independent country named Bangladesh.
7. Bangladesh drafted its own constitution declaring faith in secularism, democracy and socialism. In 1975, Sheikh Mujibur Rehman formed presidential setup, but was assassinated in a military uprising. The new military ruler Ziaur Rahman formed his own Bangladesh National Party and won elections in 1979. He was assassinated and another military take over followed under the leadership of Gen. H.M. Ershad. Since 1991, representative democracy has been working in Bangladesh.
8. Nepal was a Hindu Kingdom and became constitutional monarchy in modern period. The struggle for restoration of democracy began in 1990 and 2007 when king restored house of representatives. Even today Nepal is demanding the formation of constituent assembly.
9. Ceylon, presently known as Sri Lanka experienced an ethnic conflict between Sinhalese and Tamils for power sharing. LTTE demanded a separate state for Tamil 1983 onwards with the support of Indian government who sent Indian Peace Keeping Forces there which was not liked by Sri Lankans.
10. Sri Lanka has maintained a democratic political system with a considerable economic growth i.e. one of the first developing countries to control population growth rate, liberalized economy, and bears highest per capita gross Domestic Product despite the ongoing conflicts.
11. India-Pakistan conflicts in South Asian region is most important to be sorted out. The wars between these countries took place in 1947-48,1965 and 1971 on the issues of Pak Occupied Kashmir (POK) and Line of Control (LOC). Except, other issues of conflicts are control of Siachin glacier, acquisition of arms and sharing of river water.
12. Both the governments are suspicious to each other on the ground of Pakistani strategy to help Kashmiri militants and ISI to be involved in Anti-India campaign. Pakistan blames India for making trouble in Sindh and Baluchistan.
India and Bangladesh experienced differences over the issues of sharing of Ganga and
Brahmaputra river water, illegal immigration to India, support for anti Indian-Islamic fundamentalists, refusal to allow Indian troops and not to export natural gas to India. It is the main link of India’s ‘Look East’ Policy.
14. India and Nepal also bear differences on the issues of Nepal’s relations with China and inaction against anti-Indian elements i.e. Maoists. But still both the countries signed the treaty of trade and commerce in 2005 and friendship in 2006 to provide financial and technical assistance and to allow citizens to move without visas and passport.
15. India and Bhutan do not share any major conflict, but attached on the issues to need out the guerrillas and militants from North-eastern India and involvement of India also in big hydroelectric projects in Bhutan is the biggest source of development aid.
16. India is supportive to Maldives in their economy, tourism and fisheries. In November 1988, India reacted quickly against an attack from Tamil Mercenaries on Maldives.
17. In spite of the above-mentioned conflicts and differences, states of South Asia recognise cooperation and friendly relations among themselves. Hence, a major regional initiative has been taken in the form of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in 1982. SAARC members signed South Asian Free Trade Agreements (SAFTA) to form free trade zone for the whole South Asia.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Geo-Politics: Geo-politics refers to the Association of countries who are bound with each
other geographically and their interests are also interlinked with each other politically and economically.
2. Bilateral Talks: Talks involving the two countries without any other mediation.
3. Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF): It was sent by India in Sri Lanka to support the demand of Tamils to be recognised.
4. Seven Party Alliance (SPA): An alliance of seven parties in Nepal which also demanded an end to monarch.
5. SAARC: It stands for South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation having seven members and aims at mutual trust and understanding.
6. SAFTA: It is South Asia Free Trade Area Agreement to trade free from custom restrictions and duties by its member states.
7. LTTE: The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam in Sri Lanka which demanded a separate state for Tamils.
TIMELINE
1. 1947: India and Pakistan emerge as an independent nation after the end of British rule.
2. 1948: Sri Lanka gains independence. Indo-Pak conflict over Kashmir.
3. 1954-55: Pakistan joins the Cold War military blocs, SEATO and CENTO.
4. September 1960: India and Pakistan sign Indus Waters Treaty.
5. 1962: Border conflicts between India and China.
6. 1965: Indo-Pak War, UN India-Pakistan Observation Mission.
7. 1966: India and Pakistan sign the Tashkent Agreement: Six-Point proposal of Sheikh Mujib- ur-Rahman for greater autonomy to East Pakistan.
8. March 1971: Proclamation of independence by leaders of Bangladesh.
9. August 1971: Indo-Soviet Treaty of friendship signed for 20 years.
10. December 1971: Indo-Pak war, Liberation of Bangladesh.
11. July 1972: India and Pakistan sign the Shimla Agreement.
12. May 1974: India conducts nuclear test.
13. 1976: Pakistan and Bangladesh establish diplomatic relations.
14. December 1985: South Asian leaders sign the SAARC Charter at the first summit in Dhaka.
15. 1987: Indo-Sri Lanka Accord: Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) operation in Sri Lanka (1987-90).
16. 1988: India sends troops to the Maldives to foil a coup attempt by mercenaries.
India and Pakistan sign the agreement not to attack nuclear installations and facilities of each other.
17. 1988-91: Democracy restoration in Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal.
18. December 1996: India and Bangladesh sign the Farakka Treaty for sharing of the Ganga waters.
19. May 1998: India and Pakistan conduct nuclear tests.
20. December: India and Sri Lanka sign the Free Trade Agreement (FTA)
21. February 1999: Indian PM Vajpayee undertakes bus journey to Lahore to sign a Peace Declaration.
22. June-July 1999: Kargil conflict between India and Pakistan.
23. July 2001: Vajpayee-Musharraf Agra Summit unsuccessful.
24. January 2004: SAFTA signed at the 12th SAARC Summit in Islamabad.
Ch-6
International Organisations
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. International organisations help countries to cooperate to create better living conditions all over the world and provide common platform to discuss contentious issues and find peaceful solutions, by a mechanism, rules and bureaucracy.
2. The United Nations was founded as a successor to ‘League of Nations’ immediately after the Second World Charter by 51 states on 20th October 1945 with the headquarter at New York.
3. The UN has 192 member states to prevent international conflicts to facilitate co-operation. The UN’s main organs are the General Assembly and Security Council. The UNSC consists of five permanent members i.e. the US, Russia, France, China and the UK, who enjoy Veto Power. The UN’s representative head is Secretary General.
4. The UN consists of many specialised agencies to deal with social and economic issues like WHO, UNDP, UNHRG, UNHCR, UNICEF, and UNESCO to work in an efficient manner and to bring world together.
5. After the Cold War, some of the changes occurred which affected the functioning of the UN
i. e. collapse of Soviet Union, emergence of China and India as rising powers, entry of new members, and confrontations with the challenges like genocide, civil war, ethnic conflict, terrorism, nuclear proliferation etc.
6. They faced two kinds of reforms over the time i.e. organisations structure and processes and a review of the issues that fall within jurisdiction of UN as why veto powers to permanent members only, dominance of powerful countries and to play more effective role in peace and security missions etc.
7. In 1992, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution over the reform of UN complaining no longer representation by contemporary powers, dominance of few countries based on western values etc. Following these in January 1997, Kofi Annan, UN Secretary General initiated on “How the UN should be reformed?”
8. Since 1997 onwards, a new member to be added to the UN should fulfil the parameters of being a major economic and military power, contributor to UN Budget, a populous one, should respect democracy and human rights and to make council more representative.
9. In September 2005, the heads of all member states of the UN took the steps to make the UN more relevant by creating peace building commissions, human rights council, agreement to achieve Millennium Development Goals, condemnation of terrorism, creation of democracy fund and an agreement to wind up Trusteeship Council.
10. India is a big supporter of restructuring of the UN to promote development and cooperation among states, to composition of Security Council arid to include more representation in council for its political support.
11. Being a citizen of India, we would firmly support India’s candidature for the permanent membership of UN Security Council on the grounds to be second most populous country, largest democracy, initiations in the UN, economic emergence and regular financial contributor to the UN.
12. Some countries question India’s inclusion as permanent members in the Security Council on the basis of its troubled relationship with Pakistan, nuclear weapon capabilities, and if India included, some emerging powers (Brazil, Germany, Japan, South Africa) will also be accommodated. France and the USA advocate that Africa and South America must be represented for they do not have any representation in the present structure.
13. The UN can not serve as a balance against US dominance because the US is the only Superpower after 1991 and may ignore any international organisation economically and’ militarily, its veto power also can stop any move damaging its interests as well as enjoys a considerable say in the choice of Secretary General of the UN.
14. Despite the above mentioned strong activities of the US, the UN serves a purpose in bringing the world together in dealing with conflicts and social and economic issues. The UN provides a space within which arguments against specific US attitude and policies are heard and compromised.
UN’S SIGNIFICANT AGENCIES
1. International Monetary Fund (IMF)
(a) At the international level, overseas financial institutions and regulations.
(b) It consists of 180 members. Out of them, G-8 members enjoy more powers i.e. the US, Japan, Germany, France, the UK, Italy, Canada and Russia except China and Saudi Arabia.
(c) The US alone enjoys 16.75% voting rights.
2. World Bank
(a) It was created in 1944.
(b) It works for human development, agriculture and rural development, environmental protection, infrastructure and governance and provides loans and grants to developing countries.
(c) It is criticised for setting the economic agenda of poorer nations, attaching stringent conditions to its loans and forcing free market reforms.
3. WTO-World Trade Organisation
(a) An international organisation to set the rules for global trade which was set up in 1995 as a successor to General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) and has 157 members, (as on 1 September 2012)
(b) Major economic powers such as the US, EU and Japan have managed to use the WTO to frame rules of trade to advance their own interests.
(c) The developing countries often complain of non-transparent procedure and being pushed around by big powers.
4. IAEA-International Atomic Energy Agency
(a) It was established in 1957 to implement US president Dwight Eisenhower’s “Atoms for Peace” proposal.
(b) It seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to prevent its use for military purpose.
(c) IAEA teams regularly inspect nuclear facilities all over the world to ensure that civilian reactors are not being used for military purposes.
5. Amnesty International
(a) An NGO to campaign for the protection of human rights all over the world.
(b) It prepares and publishes reports on human rights to research and advocate human rights.
(c) Governments are not always happy with these reports since a major focus of Amnesty is the misconduct of government authorities.
6. Human Rights Watch
(a) Another international NGO involved in research and advocacy of human rights.
(b) The largest international human rights organisation in the US.
(c) It draws the global media’s attention to human rights abuses.
(d) It helped in building international coalitions like the campaigns to ban landmines, to stop the use of child-soldier and to establish the international criminal court.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. UN Charter: A constitution of the UN to deal with objectives of the UN.
2. Veto: It is a negative vote to be enjoyed by five permanent members of Security Council to stop a decision.
3. Secretary General: A representative head of the UN to prepare an annual record of the UN activities.
4. WHO: World Health Organisation to deal with matters related to health.
5. UNICEF: United Nation’s Children Fund to deal with child welfare.
6. UNESCO: United Nation’s Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation to deal with promotion of education, science and culture.
7. Peace Keeping Operation: A mechanism for restoring peace and security by sending UN controlled troops in the affected area.
TIMELINE
1. August 1941: Signing of the Atlantic Charter by the US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British PM Winston S. Churchill.
2. January 1942: 26 Allied nations fighting against the Axis Powers meet in Washington D.C., to support the Atlantic Charter and sign the ‘Declaration by United Nations’.
3. December 1943: Tehran Conference Declaration of the three powers (US, Britain and Soviet Union)
4. February 1945: Yalta Conference of the ‘Big Three’ (Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin) decides to organise a United Nations conference on the proposed world organisation.
5. April-May 1945: The 2-month long United Nations Conference on International Organisation at San Francisco.
6. June 26, 1945: Signing of the UN Charter by 50 nations (Poland signed on October 15; so the UN has 51 original founding members)
7. October 24, 1945: The UN was founded (hence October 24 is celebrated as UN Day).
8. October 30, 1945: India joins the UN.
UN SECRETARIES-GENERAL
1. Trygve Lie (1946-1952) Norway: Lawyer and foreign minister, worked for ceasefire between India and Pakistan on Kashmir; criticised for his failure to quickly end the Korean war, Soviet Union opposed second term for him; resigned from the post.
2. Dag Hammarskjold (1953-1961) Sweden: Economist and lawyer, worked for resolving the Suez Canal dispute and the decolonisation of Africa; awarded Nobel Peace Prize posthumously in 1961 for his efforts to settle the Congo Crisis, Soviet Union and France criticised his role in Africa.
3. U Thant (1961-1971) Burma (Myanmar): Teacher and diplomat worked for resolving the Cuban Missile crisis and ending the Congo Crisis; established the UN Peacekeeping force in Cyprus; criticised the US during the Vietnam war.
4. Kurt Waldheim (1972-1981) Austria: Diplomat and foreign minister; made efforts to
resolve the problems of Namibia and Lebanon; oversaw the relief operation in Bangladesh, China blocked his bid for a third term.
5. Javier Perez de Cuellar (1982-1991) Peru: Lawyer and diplomat, worked for peace in Cyprus, Afghanistan and El Salvador; mediated between Britain and Argentina after the Falklands war; negotiated for the independence of Namibia.
6. Boutros Boutros-Ghali (1992-1996) Egypt: Diplomat, jurist, foreign minister; issued a report, ‘An Agenda for Peace’; conducted a successful UN operation in Mozambique; blamed for the UN failures in Bosnia, Somalia and Rwanda; due to serious disagreements, the US blocked a second term for him.
7. Kofi A. Annan (1997-2006) Ghana: UN official, created the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria; declared the US-led invasion of Iraq as an illegal act; established the Peacebuilding Commission and the Human Rights Council in 2005; awarded the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize.
1. International organisations help countries to cooperate to create better living conditions all over the world and provide common platform to discuss contentious issues and find peaceful solutions, by a mechanism, rules and bureaucracy.
2. The United Nations was founded as a successor to ‘League of Nations’ immediately after the Second World Charter by 51 states on 20th October 1945 with the headquarter at New York.
3. The UN has 192 member states to prevent international conflicts to facilitate co-operation. The UN’s main organs are the General Assembly and Security Council. The UNSC consists of five permanent members i.e. the US, Russia, France, China and the UK, who enjoy Veto Power. The UN’s representative head is Secretary General.
4. The UN consists of many specialised agencies to deal with social and economic issues like WHO, UNDP, UNHRG, UNHCR, UNICEF, and UNESCO to work in an efficient manner and to bring world together.
5. After the Cold War, some of the changes occurred which affected the functioning of the UN
i. e. collapse of Soviet Union, emergence of China and India as rising powers, entry of new members, and confrontations with the challenges like genocide, civil war, ethnic conflict, terrorism, nuclear proliferation etc.
6. They faced two kinds of reforms over the time i.e. organisations structure and processes and a review of the issues that fall within jurisdiction of UN as why veto powers to permanent members only, dominance of powerful countries and to play more effective role in peace and security missions etc.
7. In 1992, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution over the reform of UN complaining no longer representation by contemporary powers, dominance of few countries based on western values etc. Following these in January 1997, Kofi Annan, UN Secretary General initiated on “How the UN should be reformed?”
8. Since 1997 onwards, a new member to be added to the UN should fulfil the parameters of being a major economic and military power, contributor to UN Budget, a populous one, should respect democracy and human rights and to make council more representative.
9. In September 2005, the heads of all member states of the UN took the steps to make the UN more relevant by creating peace building commissions, human rights council, agreement to achieve Millennium Development Goals, condemnation of terrorism, creation of democracy fund and an agreement to wind up Trusteeship Council.
10. India is a big supporter of restructuring of the UN to promote development and cooperation among states, to composition of Security Council arid to include more representation in council for its political support.
11. Being a citizen of India, we would firmly support India’s candidature for the permanent membership of UN Security Council on the grounds to be second most populous country, largest democracy, initiations in the UN, economic emergence and regular financial contributor to the UN.
12. Some countries question India’s inclusion as permanent members in the Security Council on the basis of its troubled relationship with Pakistan, nuclear weapon capabilities, and if India included, some emerging powers (Brazil, Germany, Japan, South Africa) will also be accommodated. France and the USA advocate that Africa and South America must be represented for they do not have any representation in the present structure.
13. The UN can not serve as a balance against US dominance because the US is the only Superpower after 1991 and may ignore any international organisation economically and’ militarily, its veto power also can stop any move damaging its interests as well as enjoys a considerable say in the choice of Secretary General of the UN.
14. Despite the above mentioned strong activities of the US, the UN serves a purpose in bringing the world together in dealing with conflicts and social and economic issues. The UN provides a space within which arguments against specific US attitude and policies are heard and compromised.
UN’S SIGNIFICANT AGENCIES
1. International Monetary Fund (IMF)
(a) At the international level, overseas financial institutions and regulations.
(b) It consists of 180 members. Out of them, G-8 members enjoy more powers i.e. the US, Japan, Germany, France, the UK, Italy, Canada and Russia except China and Saudi Arabia.
(c) The US alone enjoys 16.75% voting rights.
2. World Bank
(a) It was created in 1944.
(b) It works for human development, agriculture and rural development, environmental protection, infrastructure and governance and provides loans and grants to developing countries.
(c) It is criticised for setting the economic agenda of poorer nations, attaching stringent conditions to its loans and forcing free market reforms.
3. WTO-World Trade Organisation
(a) An international organisation to set the rules for global trade which was set up in 1995 as a successor to General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) and has 157 members, (as on 1 September 2012)
(b) Major economic powers such as the US, EU and Japan have managed to use the WTO to frame rules of trade to advance their own interests.
(c) The developing countries often complain of non-transparent procedure and being pushed around by big powers.
4. IAEA-International Atomic Energy Agency
(a) It was established in 1957 to implement US president Dwight Eisenhower’s “Atoms for Peace” proposal.
(b) It seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to prevent its use for military purpose.
(c) IAEA teams regularly inspect nuclear facilities all over the world to ensure that civilian reactors are not being used for military purposes.
5. Amnesty International
(a) An NGO to campaign for the protection of human rights all over the world.
(b) It prepares and publishes reports on human rights to research and advocate human rights.
(c) Governments are not always happy with these reports since a major focus of Amnesty is the misconduct of government authorities.
6. Human Rights Watch
(a) Another international NGO involved in research and advocacy of human rights.
(b) The largest international human rights organisation in the US.
(c) It draws the global media’s attention to human rights abuses.
(d) It helped in building international coalitions like the campaigns to ban landmines, to stop the use of child-soldier and to establish the international criminal court.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. UN Charter: A constitution of the UN to deal with objectives of the UN.
2. Veto: It is a negative vote to be enjoyed by five permanent members of Security Council to stop a decision.
3. Secretary General: A representative head of the UN to prepare an annual record of the UN activities.
4. WHO: World Health Organisation to deal with matters related to health.
5. UNICEF: United Nation’s Children Fund to deal with child welfare.
6. UNESCO: United Nation’s Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation to deal with promotion of education, science and culture.
7. Peace Keeping Operation: A mechanism for restoring peace and security by sending UN controlled troops in the affected area.
TIMELINE
1. August 1941: Signing of the Atlantic Charter by the US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British PM Winston S. Churchill.
2. January 1942: 26 Allied nations fighting against the Axis Powers meet in Washington D.C., to support the Atlantic Charter and sign the ‘Declaration by United Nations’.
3. December 1943: Tehran Conference Declaration of the three powers (US, Britain and Soviet Union)
4. February 1945: Yalta Conference of the ‘Big Three’ (Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin) decides to organise a United Nations conference on the proposed world organisation.
5. April-May 1945: The 2-month long United Nations Conference on International Organisation at San Francisco.
6. June 26, 1945: Signing of the UN Charter by 50 nations (Poland signed on October 15; so the UN has 51 original founding members)
7. October 24, 1945: The UN was founded (hence October 24 is celebrated as UN Day).
8. October 30, 1945: India joins the UN.
UN SECRETARIES-GENERAL
1. Trygve Lie (1946-1952) Norway: Lawyer and foreign minister, worked for ceasefire between India and Pakistan on Kashmir; criticised for his failure to quickly end the Korean war, Soviet Union opposed second term for him; resigned from the post.
2. Dag Hammarskjold (1953-1961) Sweden: Economist and lawyer, worked for resolving the Suez Canal dispute and the decolonisation of Africa; awarded Nobel Peace Prize posthumously in 1961 for his efforts to settle the Congo Crisis, Soviet Union and France criticised his role in Africa.
3. U Thant (1961-1971) Burma (Myanmar): Teacher and diplomat worked for resolving the Cuban Missile crisis and ending the Congo Crisis; established the UN Peacekeeping force in Cyprus; criticised the US during the Vietnam war.
4. Kurt Waldheim (1972-1981) Austria: Diplomat and foreign minister; made efforts to
resolve the problems of Namibia and Lebanon; oversaw the relief operation in Bangladesh, China blocked his bid for a third term.
5. Javier Perez de Cuellar (1982-1991) Peru: Lawyer and diplomat, worked for peace in Cyprus, Afghanistan and El Salvador; mediated between Britain and Argentina after the Falklands war; negotiated for the independence of Namibia.
6. Boutros Boutros-Ghali (1992-1996) Egypt: Diplomat, jurist, foreign minister; issued a report, ‘An Agenda for Peace’; conducted a successful UN operation in Mozambique; blamed for the UN failures in Bosnia, Somalia and Rwanda; due to serious disagreements, the US blocked a second term for him.
7. Kofi A. Annan (1997-2006) Ghana: UN official, created the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria; declared the US-led invasion of Iraq as an illegal act; established the Peacebuilding Commission and the Human Rights Council in 2005; awarded the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize.
Ch-7
Security in the Contemporary World
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. ‘Security’ is freedom from ‘threats’, security protects core values from threatening by preventing, limiting and ending the war.
2. The notions of security can be grouped into two i.e. Traditional concept and Non-traditional concept. Traditional notion includes both external and internal threats. External threats experience military war, balance of power and alliance building threats whereas internal includes internal peace and order.
3. The means of traditional security limit the violence upto maximum extent through disarmament, arms-control and confidence building. Disarmament bounds states to give up certain kinds of weapons. Arms control regulates acquisition of weapons and confidence building share ideas and information with rival countries.
4. Non-traditional security focuses on human and global security by covering all of human kinds. Human security in a narrow sense protects individuals from internal violence only whereas broadly it protects from hunger, diseases and natural disasters. Global security responds to threats like global warming, international terrorism, health epidemics like AIDS, bird flue and so on.
5. New sources of threats include terrorism, human rights, global poverty, migration, and health epidemics. Terrorism refers to political violence targeting civilians deliberately and indiscriminately. Human rights threats involve political rights, economic and social rights as well as rights of colonised people and indigenous minorities.
6. Global poverty suffers from low per capita income and economic growth and high population migration creates international political friction as states pursue different rules for migrants and refugees. Health epidemics cover HIV-AIDS, bird flu, and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) through migration business, tourism and military operations.
7. Cooperative security is required to alleviate poverty, manage migration, refugee movements and control epidemics. Cooperation may be bilateral, regional, continental or global depending on the nature of threat and willingness and ability of countries to respond either nationally or internationally.
8. India has faced both traditional and non-traditional threats to its security. India’s security strategy has four broad components i.e. strengthening military capabilities, to strength international norms and institutions, to meet security challenges inside the border and to develop to lift citizens out of poverty, missing and economic inequalities.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Security: An essence for existence of human life to protect from threats either external or internal.
2. Arms Control: It regulates acquisition of weapon.
3. Disarmament: It bounds states to give up certain kinds of weapons to avoid mass destruction.
4. Confidence building: A process in which different countries share ideas and information with rival countries by intimating each other about their military plans.
5. Global Poverty: It refers to a country to be suffered from low incomes and less economic growth to be categorised as least developed or developing countries.
6. Migration: It is the movement of human resources from one state to another due to some particular reasons.
IMPORTANT ABBREVIATIONS
1. BWC: Biological Weapons Convention
2. CWC: Chemical Weapons Convention
3. ABM: Anti-Ballistic Missile
4. START: Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty
5. NPT: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
6. SALT: Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty
7. SARS: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
8. CBMS: Confidence Building Measures
9. NIEO: New International Economic Order
10. IMF: International Monetary Fund
1. ‘Security’ is freedom from ‘threats’, security protects core values from threatening by preventing, limiting and ending the war.
2. The notions of security can be grouped into two i.e. Traditional concept and Non-traditional concept. Traditional notion includes both external and internal threats. External threats experience military war, balance of power and alliance building threats whereas internal includes internal peace and order.
3. The means of traditional security limit the violence upto maximum extent through disarmament, arms-control and confidence building. Disarmament bounds states to give up certain kinds of weapons. Arms control regulates acquisition of weapons and confidence building share ideas and information with rival countries.
4. Non-traditional security focuses on human and global security by covering all of human kinds. Human security in a narrow sense protects individuals from internal violence only whereas broadly it protects from hunger, diseases and natural disasters. Global security responds to threats like global warming, international terrorism, health epidemics like AIDS, bird flue and so on.
5. New sources of threats include terrorism, human rights, global poverty, migration, and health epidemics. Terrorism refers to political violence targeting civilians deliberately and indiscriminately. Human rights threats involve political rights, economic and social rights as well as rights of colonised people and indigenous minorities.
6. Global poverty suffers from low per capita income and economic growth and high population migration creates international political friction as states pursue different rules for migrants and refugees. Health epidemics cover HIV-AIDS, bird flu, and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) through migration business, tourism and military operations.
7. Cooperative security is required to alleviate poverty, manage migration, refugee movements and control epidemics. Cooperation may be bilateral, regional, continental or global depending on the nature of threat and willingness and ability of countries to respond either nationally or internationally.
8. India has faced both traditional and non-traditional threats to its security. India’s security strategy has four broad components i.e. strengthening military capabilities, to strength international norms and institutions, to meet security challenges inside the border and to develop to lift citizens out of poverty, missing and economic inequalities.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Security: An essence for existence of human life to protect from threats either external or internal.
2. Arms Control: It regulates acquisition of weapon.
3. Disarmament: It bounds states to give up certain kinds of weapons to avoid mass destruction.
4. Confidence building: A process in which different countries share ideas and information with rival countries by intimating each other about their military plans.
5. Global Poverty: It refers to a country to be suffered from low incomes and less economic growth to be categorised as least developed or developing countries.
6. Migration: It is the movement of human resources from one state to another due to some particular reasons.
IMPORTANT ABBREVIATIONS
1. BWC: Biological Weapons Convention
2. CWC: Chemical Weapons Convention
3. ABM: Anti-Ballistic Missile
4. START: Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty
5. NPT: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
6. SALT: Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty
7. SARS: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
8. CBMS: Confidence Building Measures
9. NIEO: New International Economic Order
10. IMF: International Monetary Fund
Ch-8
Environment and Natural Resources
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. Environmental concerns in Global politics cover losing fertility of agricultural land, and grazing, depletion of water resources as well as loss of bio-diversity, real danger to eco-system and coastal pollution, deteriorating of marine environment,
2. Environmental consequences of economic growth acquired a political shape from 1960s onwards, following a book published in 1972 namely Limits To Growth and Initiatives taken by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to promote co-ordination and effective response on environment at global level.
3. The Earth Summit held in Rio-de-Janerio, Brazil in 1992 revealed different views i.e. global north (the first world countries) and global south (the third world countries). Global North was concerned with the issues of ozone depletion and global warming and global south focused on economic development and environment management by Agenda 21.
4. Global commons refer to the areas or regions which require common governance by international community on major problems of ecological issues i.e. discovery of ozone hole over Antarctic, earth’s atmosphere and ocean floor associated with technology and industrial development.
5. The Rio Declaration at the Earth Summit in 1992 adopted the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities ‘refering special needs of developing countries in the fields as development, application and interpretation of rules of international environmental law to protect environment by both developing nations in a responsible manner.
6. The 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) also emphasised to protect the climate system on the basis of equity and in accordance with their common but differentiated responsibilities and capabilities.
Example-Largest and current global emissions of greenhouse gases originated in developed nations, hence low emissioned developing countries like India and China have been exempted from Kyoto Protocol held in Japan in 1997.
7. Common property resources refer to a group who have both rights and duties with respect to nature, levels of use and the maintenance of a given resource with mutual understanding and practices i.e. management of sacred groves on state owned forest land.
8. India plays a dominating role on the environmental issues as it signed and ratified 1997 Kyoto Protocol in August 2002 to follow common but differentiated responsibilities and India is a wary of recent discussions with UNFCCC about introducing binding commitments. India participated in global efforts by introducing National Autofuel Policy, Electricity Act, 2003 and National Mission on Biodiesel. Besides, India supports to adopt a common position by SAARC countries on major environmental issue to have a greater say regionwise.
9. Environmental movements are the movements of groups which are environmentally conscious to challenge environmental degradation at national or international level aiming at raising new ideas and long term vision i.e. in Mexico, Chille, Brazil, Malaysia, Indonesia, India faced enormous pressure.
10. Environmental movements are categorised as forest movements, movements against mining and mineral industry for creating Water Pollution and Anti Dam Movement.
11. ‘Resources Geopolitics’ is all about who gets what, when, where and how? The practices of neo-colonialism spread on a large scale and throughout a cold war, industrialised countries adopted methods to ensure a steady flow of resources by deployment of military forces near exploitation sites and sea-lanes of communications, the stock pilling of strategic resources and efforts to prop up friendly governments.
12. The global economy relied on oil as a portable and essential fuel. The history of petroleum is the history of war and struggle. Water is another important resource relevant to global politics. Regional variations and increasing scaring of fresh water may also lead to conflicts in the world to play politics.
13. Indigenous people bring the issues of environment, resources and politics together. Indigenous people live with their social, economic, cultural customs in particular areas who speak of their struggle, agenda, and rights to have equal status i.e. Island states in ocean region, Central and South America, Africa, India and South East Asia.
14. The issues related to rights of indigenous communities have been neglected in domestic and international politics for long. The World Council of Indigenous People was formed in 1975 which became first of 11 indigenous NGOs to receive consultative status in the UN.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Earth Summit: A conference held in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) in June 1992 on Environment and Development to deal with various environmental problems.
2. Agenda 21: The Earth Summit recommended a list of practices in reference of development to attain sustainability, called Agenda 21.
3. Kyoto Protocol: An international agreement setting targets for industrialised countries to cut their greenhouse gas emissions was agreed to in 1997 in Kyoto in Japan, based on principles set out in UNFCCC.
4. UNFCCC: The 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change provided that parties should act to protect the climate system with common but differentiated responsibilities.
5. Indigenous People: Indigenous people comprise the descendants of peoples who inhabited the present territory of a country at the time when persons of different culture arrived there from different parts of the world.
1. Environmental concerns in Global politics cover losing fertility of agricultural land, and grazing, depletion of water resources as well as loss of bio-diversity, real danger to eco-system and coastal pollution, deteriorating of marine environment,
2. Environmental consequences of economic growth acquired a political shape from 1960s onwards, following a book published in 1972 namely Limits To Growth and Initiatives taken by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to promote co-ordination and effective response on environment at global level.
3. The Earth Summit held in Rio-de-Janerio, Brazil in 1992 revealed different views i.e. global north (the first world countries) and global south (the third world countries). Global North was concerned with the issues of ozone depletion and global warming and global south focused on economic development and environment management by Agenda 21.
4. Global commons refer to the areas or regions which require common governance by international community on major problems of ecological issues i.e. discovery of ozone hole over Antarctic, earth’s atmosphere and ocean floor associated with technology and industrial development.
5. The Rio Declaration at the Earth Summit in 1992 adopted the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities ‘refering special needs of developing countries in the fields as development, application and interpretation of rules of international environmental law to protect environment by both developing nations in a responsible manner.
6. The 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) also emphasised to protect the climate system on the basis of equity and in accordance with their common but differentiated responsibilities and capabilities.
Example-Largest and current global emissions of greenhouse gases originated in developed nations, hence low emissioned developing countries like India and China have been exempted from Kyoto Protocol held in Japan in 1997.
7. Common property resources refer to a group who have both rights and duties with respect to nature, levels of use and the maintenance of a given resource with mutual understanding and practices i.e. management of sacred groves on state owned forest land.
8. India plays a dominating role on the environmental issues as it signed and ratified 1997 Kyoto Protocol in August 2002 to follow common but differentiated responsibilities and India is a wary of recent discussions with UNFCCC about introducing binding commitments. India participated in global efforts by introducing National Autofuel Policy, Electricity Act, 2003 and National Mission on Biodiesel. Besides, India supports to adopt a common position by SAARC countries on major environmental issue to have a greater say regionwise.
9. Environmental movements are the movements of groups which are environmentally conscious to challenge environmental degradation at national or international level aiming at raising new ideas and long term vision i.e. in Mexico, Chille, Brazil, Malaysia, Indonesia, India faced enormous pressure.
10. Environmental movements are categorised as forest movements, movements against mining and mineral industry for creating Water Pollution and Anti Dam Movement.
11. ‘Resources Geopolitics’ is all about who gets what, when, where and how? The practices of neo-colonialism spread on a large scale and throughout a cold war, industrialised countries adopted methods to ensure a steady flow of resources by deployment of military forces near exploitation sites and sea-lanes of communications, the stock pilling of strategic resources and efforts to prop up friendly governments.
12. The global economy relied on oil as a portable and essential fuel. The history of petroleum is the history of war and struggle. Water is another important resource relevant to global politics. Regional variations and increasing scaring of fresh water may also lead to conflicts in the world to play politics.
13. Indigenous people bring the issues of environment, resources and politics together. Indigenous people live with their social, economic, cultural customs in particular areas who speak of their struggle, agenda, and rights to have equal status i.e. Island states in ocean region, Central and South America, Africa, India and South East Asia.
14. The issues related to rights of indigenous communities have been neglected in domestic and international politics for long. The World Council of Indigenous People was formed in 1975 which became first of 11 indigenous NGOs to receive consultative status in the UN.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Earth Summit: A conference held in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) in June 1992 on Environment and Development to deal with various environmental problems.
2. Agenda 21: The Earth Summit recommended a list of practices in reference of development to attain sustainability, called Agenda 21.
3. Kyoto Protocol: An international agreement setting targets for industrialised countries to cut their greenhouse gas emissions was agreed to in 1997 in Kyoto in Japan, based on principles set out in UNFCCC.
4. UNFCCC: The 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change provided that parties should act to protect the climate system with common but differentiated responsibilities.
5. Indigenous People: Indigenous people comprise the descendants of peoples who inhabited the present territory of a country at the time when persons of different culture arrived there from different parts of the world.
Ch-9
Globalisation
FACTS THAT MATTER
1. Globalisation is the integration of economy of a country in the process of free flow of trade and capital. It may also include ‘Brain drain’ across borders.
2. Globalisation increases the volume of trade in goods and services, inflows private foreign capital, increases foreign direct investment, creates new jobs, strengthens domestic economies, improves productive efficiency and healthy competition.
3. Globalisation may have negative impacts also as it failed to generate sufficient employment, modern methods of cultivation are not acquainted to less educated persons, it creates income inequality and exploits natural resources and labour force.
4. The globalisation is the result of historical factors, technological innovations, liberalisation of foreign trade and investment policies, and opening of multinational companies.
5. Globalisation consequences may be political, economical and cultural, politically stunts’ capacity has received a boost with enhanced technologies to collect information about its citizens.
6. Economic flows in various forums, like commodity, capital, people and ideas prompts rich countries to invest their money in countries other than their own. It also draws attention towards the role of JMF and WTO in determining economic policies across the world.
7. Cultural globalisation emerges and enlarges our choices and modify our culture without overwhelming the traditional norms i.e. burger can not be a substitute for masala dosa. Hence, it broadens our cultural outlook and promotes cultural homogenisation.
8. Globalisation has been criticised on political, economic and cultural grounds i.e. politically it weakens the state by reducing its sovereignty. Economically it has made the rich richer and the poor poorer creating disparities. Culturally there has been harmed traditions and lost age old values and ways. The World Social Forum (WSF) has also opposed neo-liberal globalisation.
9. In India, Globalisation has led to setting up of foreign companies as India realised the need for relating the Indian economy with the world by responding to 1991 financial crisis.
10. Globalisation process includes the thrust to liberalisation or privatisation. Liberalisation proclaims freedom of trade and investment, controls allocation of resources in domestic economy, rapid technological progress whereas privatisation allows private sector and other foreign companies to produce goods and services.
11. Resistance to globalisation in India has come from different quarters i.e. left wing protests to economic liberalisation, trade unions of industrial workforce organised protest against multinationals, the patents, resistance from political right i.e. objecting to various cultural influences of foreign T.V. channels, celebration of Valentine’s Day and Westernisation of dress of girls students in schools and colleges.
9. Environmental movements are the movements of groups which are environmentally conscious to challenge environmental degradation at national or international level aiming at raising new ideas and long term vision i.e. in Mexico, Chille, Brazil, Malaysia, Indonesia, India faced enormous pressure.
10. Environmental movements are categorised as forest movements, movements against mining and mineral industry for creating Water Pollution and Anti Dam Movement.
11. ‘Resources Geopolitics’ is all about who gets what, when, where and how. The practices of neo-colonialism spread on a large scale and throughout a cold war, industrialised countries adopted methods to ensure a steady flow of resources by deployment of military forces near
exploitation sites and sea-lanes of communications, the stock pilling of strategic resources and efforts to prop up friendly governments.
12. The global economy relied on oil as a portable and essential fuel. The history of petroleum is the history of war and struggle. Water is another important resource relevant to global politics. Regional variations and increasing scaring of freshwater may also lead to conflicts in the world to play politics.
13. Indigenous people bring the issues of environment, resources and politics together. Indigenous people live with their social, economic, cultural customs in particular areas who speak of their struggle, agenda, and rights to have equal status i.e. Island states in Oceanic region, Central and South America, Africa, India and South East Asia.
14. The issues related to rights of indigenous communities have been neglected in domestic and international politics for long. The World Council of Indigenous People was formed in 1975 which became first of 11 indigenous NGOs to receive consultative status in the UN.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Globalisation: It signifies integration of an economy with the economies of other countries under the process of free flow of trade and capital.
2. World Social Forum: A global platform to bring together a wide coalition of human rights activists, environmentalists and women activists.
3. Privatisation: It allows private sector companies to produce goods and services in a country.
4. Liberalisation: It signifies relaxation of government rules and regulations relating to activities in sendee and industrial sector.
5. Cultural hetrogenisation: It signifies cultural differences and distinctive nature of cultures to be generated by globalisation.
1. Globalisation is the integration of economy of a country in the process of free flow of trade and capital. It may also include ‘Brain drain’ across borders.
2. Globalisation increases the volume of trade in goods and services, inflows private foreign capital, increases foreign direct investment, creates new jobs, strengthens domestic economies, improves productive efficiency and healthy competition.
3. Globalisation may have negative impacts also as it failed to generate sufficient employment, modern methods of cultivation are not acquainted to less educated persons, it creates income inequality and exploits natural resources and labour force.
4. The globalisation is the result of historical factors, technological innovations, liberalisation of foreign trade and investment policies, and opening of multinational companies.
5. Globalisation consequences may be political, economical and cultural, politically stunts’ capacity has received a boost with enhanced technologies to collect information about its citizens.
6. Economic flows in various forums, like commodity, capital, people and ideas prompts rich countries to invest their money in countries other than their own. It also draws attention towards the role of JMF and WTO in determining economic policies across the world.
7. Cultural globalisation emerges and enlarges our choices and modify our culture without overwhelming the traditional norms i.e. burger can not be a substitute for masala dosa. Hence, it broadens our cultural outlook and promotes cultural homogenisation.
8. Globalisation has been criticised on political, economic and cultural grounds i.e. politically it weakens the state by reducing its sovereignty. Economically it has made the rich richer and the poor poorer creating disparities. Culturally there has been harmed traditions and lost age old values and ways. The World Social Forum (WSF) has also opposed neo-liberal globalisation.
9. In India, Globalisation has led to setting up of foreign companies as India realised the need for relating the Indian economy with the world by responding to 1991 financial crisis.
10. Globalisation process includes the thrust to liberalisation or privatisation. Liberalisation proclaims freedom of trade and investment, controls allocation of resources in domestic economy, rapid technological progress whereas privatisation allows private sector and other foreign companies to produce goods and services.
11. Resistance to globalisation in India has come from different quarters i.e. left wing protests to economic liberalisation, trade unions of industrial workforce organised protest against multinationals, the patents, resistance from political right i.e. objecting to various cultural influences of foreign T.V. channels, celebration of Valentine’s Day and Westernisation of dress of girls students in schools and colleges.
9. Environmental movements are the movements of groups which are environmentally conscious to challenge environmental degradation at national or international level aiming at raising new ideas and long term vision i.e. in Mexico, Chille, Brazil, Malaysia, Indonesia, India faced enormous pressure.
10. Environmental movements are categorised as forest movements, movements against mining and mineral industry for creating Water Pollution and Anti Dam Movement.
11. ‘Resources Geopolitics’ is all about who gets what, when, where and how. The practices of neo-colonialism spread on a large scale and throughout a cold war, industrialised countries adopted methods to ensure a steady flow of resources by deployment of military forces near
exploitation sites and sea-lanes of communications, the stock pilling of strategic resources and efforts to prop up friendly governments.
12. The global economy relied on oil as a portable and essential fuel. The history of petroleum is the history of war and struggle. Water is another important resource relevant to global politics. Regional variations and increasing scaring of freshwater may also lead to conflicts in the world to play politics.
13. Indigenous people bring the issues of environment, resources and politics together. Indigenous people live with their social, economic, cultural customs in particular areas who speak of their struggle, agenda, and rights to have equal status i.e. Island states in Oceanic region, Central and South America, Africa, India and South East Asia.
14. The issues related to rights of indigenous communities have been neglected in domestic and international politics for long. The World Council of Indigenous People was formed in 1975 which became first of 11 indigenous NGOs to receive consultative status in the UN.
WORDS THAT MATTER
1. Globalisation: It signifies integration of an economy with the economies of other countries under the process of free flow of trade and capital.
2. World Social Forum: A global platform to bring together a wide coalition of human rights activists, environmentalists and women activists.
3. Privatisation: It allows private sector companies to produce goods and services in a country.
4. Liberalisation: It signifies relaxation of government rules and regulations relating to activities in sendee and industrial sector.
5. Cultural hetrogenisation: It signifies cultural differences and distinctive nature of cultures to be generated by globalisation.
